Edit File: operator.html
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Numeric and Mathematical Modules</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body"> <div class="section" id="module-operator"> <h1>9.9. <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">operator</span></tt> — Standard operators as functions<a class="headerlink" href="#module-operator" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> <p>The <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">operator</span></tt> module exports a set of functions implemented in C corresponding to the intrinsic operators of Python. For example, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">operator.add(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></tt> is equivalent to the expression <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">x+y</span></tt>. The function names are those used for special class methods; variants without leading and trailing <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__</span></tt> are also provided for convenience.</p> <p>The functions fall into categories that perform object comparisons, logical operations, mathematical operations, sequence operations, and abstract type tests.</p> <p>The object comparison functions are useful for all objects, and are named after the rich comparison operators they support:</p> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.lt"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">lt</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.lt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.le"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">le</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.le" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.eq"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">eq</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.eq" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.ne"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">ne</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ne" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.ge"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">ge</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ge" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.gt"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">gt</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.gt" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__lt__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__lt__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__lt__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__le__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__le__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__le__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__eq__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__eq__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__eq__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__ne__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__ne__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ne__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__ge__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__ge__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ge__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__gt__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__gt__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__gt__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Perform “rich comparisons” between <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>. Specifically, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">lt(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre"><</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">le(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre"><=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">eq(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ne(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">gt(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">></span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ge(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">>=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>. Note that unlike the built-in <a title="cmp" class="reference external" href="functions.html#cmp"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">cmp()</span></tt></a>, these functions can return any value, which may or may not be interpretable as a Boolean value. See <a class="reference external" href="../reference/expressions.html#comparisons"><em>Comparisons</em></a> for more information about rich comparisons.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.2.</span></p> </dd></dl> <p>The logical operations are also generally applicable to all objects, and support truth tests, identity tests, and boolean operations:</p> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.not_"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">not_</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.not_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__not__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__not__</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__not__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return the outcome of <a class="reference external" href="../reference/expressions.html#not"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">not</span></tt></a> <em>obj</em>. (Note that there is no <a title="operator.__not__" class="reference internal" href="#operator.__not__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__not__()</span></tt></a> method for object instances; only the interpreter core defines this operation. The result is affected by the <a title="object.__nonzero__" class="reference external" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__nonzero__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__nonzero__()</span></tt></a> and <a title="object.__len__" class="reference external" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__len__()</span></tt></a> methods.)</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.truth"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">truth</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.truth" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <a title="True" class="reference external" href="constants.html#True"><tt class="xref xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">True</span></tt></a> if <em>obj</em> is true, and <a title="False" class="reference external" href="constants.html#False"><tt class="xref xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">False</span></tt></a> otherwise. This is equivalent to using the <a title="bool" class="reference external" href="functions.html#bool"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">bool</span></tt></a> constructor.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.is_"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">is_</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.is_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>. Tests object identity.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.3.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.is_not"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">is_not</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.is_not" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>. Tests object identity.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.3.</span></p> </dd></dl> <p>The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:</p> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.abs"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">abs</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.abs" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__abs__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__abs__</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__abs__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return the absolute value of <em>obj</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.add"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">add</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__add__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__add__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__add__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>, for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> numbers.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.and_"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">and_</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.and_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__and__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__and__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__and__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return the bitwise and of <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.div"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">div</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.div" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__div__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__div__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__div__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt> when <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__future__.division</span></tt> is not in effect. This is also known as “classic” division.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.floordiv"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">floordiv</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.floordiv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__floordiv__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__floordiv__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__floordiv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.2.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.index"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">index</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.index" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__index__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__index__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__index__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return <em>a</em> converted to an integer. Equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a.__index__()</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.inv"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">inv</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.inv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.invert"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">invert</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.invert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__inv__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__inv__</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__inv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__invert__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__invert__</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__invert__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return the bitwise inverse of the number <em>obj</em>. This is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">~obj</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.0: </span>The names <a title="operator.invert" class="reference internal" href="#operator.invert"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">invert()</span></tt></a> and <a title="operator.__invert__" class="reference internal" href="#operator.__invert__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__invert__()</span></tt></a>.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.lshift"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">lshift</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.lshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__lshift__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__lshift__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__lshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <em>a</em> shifted left by <em>b</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.mod"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">mod</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.mod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__mod__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__mod__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__mod__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.mul"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">mul</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.mul" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__mul__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__mul__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__mul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>, for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> numbers.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.neg"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">neg</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.neg" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__neg__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__neg__</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__neg__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <em>obj</em> negated (<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-obj</span></tt>).</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.or_"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">or_</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.or_" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__or__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__or__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__or__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return the bitwise or of <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.pos"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">pos</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.pos" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__pos__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__pos__</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__pos__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <em>obj</em> positive (<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">+obj</span></tt>).</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.pow"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">pow</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.pow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__pow__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__pow__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__pow__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>, for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> numbers.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.3.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.rshift"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">rshift</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.rshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__rshift__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__rshift__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__rshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <em>a</em> shifted right by <em>b</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.sub"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">sub</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.sub" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__sub__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__sub__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__sub__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.truediv"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">truediv</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.truediv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__truediv__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__truediv__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__truediv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt> when <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__future__.division</span></tt> is in effect. This is also known as “true” division.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.2.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.xor"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">xor</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.xor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__xor__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__xor__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__xor__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return the bitwise exclusive or of <em>a</em> and <em>b</em>.</dd></dl> <p>Operations which work with sequences (some of them with mappings too) include:</p> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.concat"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">concat</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.concat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__concat__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__concat__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__concat__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt> for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> sequences.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.contains"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">contains</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.contains" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__contains__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__contains__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__contains__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return the outcome of the test <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">b</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">a</span></tt>. Note the reversed operands.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.0: </span>The name <a title="operator.__contains__" class="reference internal" href="#operator.__contains__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__contains__()</span></tt></a>.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.countOf"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">countOf</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.countOf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return the number of occurrences of <em>b</em> in <em>a</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.delitem"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">delitem</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.delitem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__delitem__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__delitem__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__delitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Remove the value of <em>a</em> at index <em>b</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.delslice"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">delslice</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.delslice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__delslice__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__delslice__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__delslice__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Delete the slice of <em>a</em> from index <em>b</em> to index <em>c-1</em>.</p> <p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.6: </span>This function is removed in Python 3.0. Use <a title="operator.delitem" class="reference internal" href="#operator.delitem"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">delitem()</span></tt></a> with a slice index.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.getitem"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">getitem</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.getitem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__getitem__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__getitem__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__getitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return the value of <em>a</em> at index <em>b</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.getslice"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">getslice</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.getslice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__getslice__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__getslice__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__getslice__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return the slice of <em>a</em> from index <em>b</em> to index <em>c-1</em>.</p> <p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.6: </span>This function is removed in Python 3.0. Use <a title="operator.getitem" class="reference internal" href="#operator.getitem"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">getitem()</span></tt></a> with a slice index.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.indexOf"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">indexOf</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.indexOf" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Return the index of the first of occurrence of <em>b</em> in <em>a</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.repeat"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">repeat</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.repeat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__repeat__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__repeat__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__repeat__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.6: </span>This function is removed in Python 3.0. Use <a title="operator.__mul__" class="reference internal" href="#operator.__mul__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__mul__()</span></tt></a> instead.</p> <p>Return <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt> where <em>a</em> is a sequence and <em>b</em> is an integer.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.sequenceIncludes"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">sequenceIncludes</tt><big>(</big><em>...</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.sequenceIncludes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.0: </span>Use <a title="operator.contains" class="reference internal" href="#operator.contains"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">contains()</span></tt></a> instead.</p> <p>Alias for <a title="operator.contains" class="reference internal" href="#operator.contains"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">contains()</span></tt></a>.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.setitem"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">setitem</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.setitem" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__setitem__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__setitem__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__setitem__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd>Set the value of <em>a</em> at index <em>b</em> to <em>c</em>.</dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.setslice"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">setslice</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em>, <em>v</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.setslice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__setslice__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__setslice__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, <em>c</em>, <em>v</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__setslice__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Set the slice of <em>a</em> from index <em>b</em> to index <em>c-1</em> to the sequence <em>v</em>.</p> <p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.6: </span>This function is removed in Python 3.0. Use <a title="operator.setitem" class="reference internal" href="#operator.setitem"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">setitem()</span></tt></a> with a slice index.</p> </dd></dl> <p>Example use of operator functions:</p> <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="c"># Elementwise multiplication</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">])</span> <span class="go">[0, 20, 60, 120]</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="c"># Dot product</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">mul</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">20</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">30</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">40</span><span class="p">]))</span> <span class="go">200</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Many operations have an “in-place” version. The following functions provide a more primitive access to in-place operators than the usual syntax does; for example, the <a class="reference external" href="../glossary.html#term-statement"><em class="xref">statement</em></a> <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">x</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">operator.iadd(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></tt>. Another way to put it is to say that <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">z</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">operator.iadd(x,</span> <span class="pre">y)</span></tt> is equivalent to the compound statement <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">z</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">x;</span> <span class="pre">z</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">y</span></tt>.</p> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.iadd"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">iadd</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.iadd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__iadd__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__iadd__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__iadd__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">iadd(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.iand"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">iand</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.iand" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__iand__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__iand__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__iand__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">iand(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.iconcat"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">iconcat</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.iconcat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__iconcat__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__iconcat__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__iconcat__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">iconcat(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt> for <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> sequences.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.idiv"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">idiv</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.idiv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__idiv__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__idiv__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__idiv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">idiv(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">/=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt> when <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__future__.division</span></tt> is not in effect.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.ifloordiv"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">ifloordiv</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ifloordiv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__ifloordiv__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__ifloordiv__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ifloordiv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ifloordiv(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">//=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.ilshift"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">ilshift</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ilshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__ilshift__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__ilshift__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ilshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ilshift(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre"><<=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.imod"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">imod</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.imod" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__imod__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__imod__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__imod__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">imod(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.imul"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">imul</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.imul" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__imul__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__imul__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__imul__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">imul(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.ior"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">ior</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ior" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__ior__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__ior__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ior__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ior(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">|=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.ipow"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">ipow</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ipow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__ipow__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__ipow__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ipow__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ipow(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">**=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.irepeat"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">irepeat</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.irepeat" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__irepeat__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__irepeat__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__irepeat__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.6: </span>This function is removed in Python 3.0. Use <a title="operator.__imul__" class="reference internal" href="#operator.__imul__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__imul__()</span></tt></a> instead.</p> <p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">irepeat(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt> where <em>a</em> is a sequence and <em>b</em> is an integer.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.irshift"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">irshift</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.irshift" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__irshift__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__irshift__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__irshift__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">irshift(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">>>=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.isub"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">isub</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.isub" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__isub__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__isub__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__isub__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">isub(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">-=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.itruediv"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">itruediv</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.itruediv" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__itruediv__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__itruediv__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__itruediv__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">itruediv(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">/=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt> when <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__future__.division</span></tt> is in effect.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.ixor"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">ixor</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.ixor" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dt id="operator.__ixor__"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">__ixor__</tt><big>(</big><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.__ixor__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">ixor(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> is equivalent to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">^=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.5.</span></p> </dd></dl> <p>The <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">operator</span></tt> module also defines a few predicates to test the type of objects; however, these are not all reliable. It is preferable to test abstract base classes instead (see <a title="High-performance datatypes" class="reference external" href="collections.html#module-collections"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">collections</span></tt></a> and <a title="Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.)." class="reference external" href="numbers.html#module-numbers"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">numbers</span></tt></a> for details).</p> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.isCallable"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">isCallable</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.isCallable" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.0: </span>Use <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">collections.Callable)</span></tt> instead.</p> <p>Returns true if the object <em>obj</em> can be called like a function, otherwise it returns false. True is returned for functions, bound and unbound methods, class objects, and instance objects which support the <a title="object.__call__" class="reference external" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__call__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__call__()</span></tt></a> method.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.isMappingType"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">isMappingType</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.isMappingType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.6: </span>This function is removed in Python 3.0. Use <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">collections.Mapping)</span></tt> instead.</p> <p>Returns true if the object <em>obj</em> supports the mapping interface. This is true for dictionaries and all instance objects defining <a title="operator.__getitem__" class="reference internal" href="#operator.__getitem__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></tt></a>.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.isNumberType"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">isNumberType</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.isNumberType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.6: </span>This function is removed in Python 3.0. Use <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">numbers.Number)</span></tt> instead.</p> <p>Returns true if the object <em>obj</em> represents a number. This is true for all numeric types implemented in C.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.isSequenceType"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">isSequenceType</tt><big>(</big><em>obj</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.isSequenceType" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p class="deprecated"> <span class="versionmodified">Deprecated since version 2.6: </span>This function is removed in Python 3.0. Use <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">isinstance(x,</span> <span class="pre">collections.Sequence)</span></tt> instead.</p> <p>Returns true if the object <em>obj</em> supports the sequence protocol. This returns true for all objects which define sequence methods in C, and for all instance objects defining <a title="operator.__getitem__" class="reference internal" href="#operator.__getitem__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></tt></a>.</p> </dd></dl> <p>The <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">operator</span></tt> module also defines tools for generalized attribute and item lookups. These are useful for making fast field extractors as arguments for <a title="map" class="reference external" href="functions.html#map"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">map()</span></tt></a>, <a title="sorted" class="reference external" href="functions.html#sorted"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">sorted()</span></tt></a>, <a title="itertools.groupby" class="reference external" href="itertools.html#itertools.groupby"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">itertools.groupby()</span></tt></a>, or other functions that expect a function argument.</p> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.attrgetter"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">attrgetter</tt><big>(</big><em>attr</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>args...</em><span class="optional">]</span><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.attrgetter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return a callable object that fetches <em>attr</em> from its operand. If more than one attribute is requested, returns a tuple of attributes. After, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">attrgetter('name')</span></tt>, the call <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></tt> returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">b.name</span></tt>. After, <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">attrgetter('name',</span> <span class="pre">'date')</span></tt>, the call <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></tt> returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">(b.name,</span> <span class="pre">b.date)</span></tt>.</p> <p>The attribute names can also contain dots; after <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">attrgetter('date.month')</span></tt>, the call <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></tt> returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">b.date.month</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.4.</span></p> <p class="versionchanged"> <span class="versionmodified">Changed in version 2.5: </span>Added support for multiple attributes.</p> <p class="versionchanged"> <span class="versionmodified">Changed in version 2.6: </span>Added support for dotted attributes.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.itemgetter"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">itemgetter</tt><big>(</big><em>item</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>args...</em><span class="optional">]</span><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.itemgetter" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return a callable object that fetches <em>item</em> from its operand using the operand’s <a title="operator.__getitem__" class="reference internal" href="#operator.__getitem__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></tt></a> method. If multiple items are specified, returns a tuple of lookup values. Equivalent to:</p> <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">items</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">g</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">tuple</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">obj</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">item</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">item</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">items</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">g</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>The items can be any type accepted by the operand’s <a title="operator.__getitem__" class="reference internal" href="#operator.__getitem__"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">__getitem__()</span></tt></a> method. Dictionaries accept any hashable value. Lists, tuples, and strings accept an index or a slice:</p> <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="s">'ABCDEFG'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'B'</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">)(</span><span class="s">'ABCDEFG'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">('B', 'D', 'F')</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">slice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="bp">None</span><span class="p">))(</span><span class="s">'ABCDEFG'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">'CDEFG'</span> </pre></div> </div> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.4.</span></p> <p class="versionchanged"> <span class="versionmodified">Changed in version 2.5: </span>Added support for multiple item extraction.</p> <p>Example of using <a title="operator.itemgetter" class="reference internal" href="#operator.itemgetter"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">itemgetter()</span></tt></a> to retrieve specific fields from a tuple record:</p> <div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">inventory</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[(</span><span class="s">'apple'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s">'banana'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s">'pear'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="s">'orange'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)]</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">getcount</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">itemgetter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">map</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getcount</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">inventory</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">[3, 2, 5, 1]</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">sorted</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inventory</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">key</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">getcount</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">[('orange', 1), ('banana', 2), ('apple', 3), ('pear', 5)]</span> </pre></div> </div> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="operator.methodcaller"> <tt class="descclassname">operator.</tt><tt class="descname">methodcaller</tt><big>(</big><em>name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>args...</em><span class="optional">]</span><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#operator.methodcaller" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return a callable object that calls the method <em>name</em> on its operand. If additional arguments and/or keyword arguments are given, they will be given to the method as well. After <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">methodcaller('name')</span></tt>, the call <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></tt> returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">b.name()</span></tt>. After <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">methodcaller('name',</span> <span class="pre">'foo',</span> <span class="pre">bar=1)</span></tt>, the call <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">f(b)</span></tt> returns <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">b.name('foo',</span> <span class="pre">bar=1)</span></tt>.</p> <p class="versionadded"> <span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.6.</span></p> </dd></dl> <div class="section" id="mapping-operators-to-functions"> <span id="operator-map"></span><h2>9.9.1. Mapping Operators to Functions<a class="headerlink" href="#mapping-operators-to-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>This table shows how abstract operations correspond to operator symbols in the Python syntax and the functions in the <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">operator</span></tt> module.</p> <table border="1" class="docutils"> <colgroup> <col width="26%" /> <col width="29%" /> <col width="45%" /> </colgroup> <thead valign="bottom"> <tr><th class="head">Operation</th> <th class="head">Syntax</th> <th class="head">Function</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody valign="top"> <tr><td>Addition</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">add(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Concatenation</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">seq1</span> <span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">seq2</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">concat(seq1,</span> <span class="pre">seq2)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Containment Test</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">obj</span> <span class="pre">in</span> <span class="pre">seq</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">contains(seq,</span> <span class="pre">obj)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Division</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">div(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> (without <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__future__.division</span></tt>)</td> </tr> <tr><td>Division</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">/</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">truediv(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt> (with <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">__future__.division</span></tt>)</td> </tr> <tr><td>Division</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">//</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">floordiv(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Bitwise And</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">&</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">and_(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Bitwise Exclusive Or</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">^</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">xor(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Bitwise Inversion</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">~</span> <span class="pre">a</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">invert(a)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Bitwise Or</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">|</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">or_(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Exponentiation</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">**</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">pow(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Identity</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">is_(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Identity</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">is</span> <span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">is_not(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Indexed Assignment</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">obj[k]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">v</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">setitem(obj,</span> <span class="pre">k,</span> <span class="pre">v)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Indexed Deletion</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">obj[k]</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">delitem(obj,</span> <span class="pre">k)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Indexing</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">obj[k]</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">getitem(obj,</span> <span class="pre">k)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Left Shift</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre"><<</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">lshift(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Modulo</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">mod(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Multiplication</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">mul(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Negation (Arithmetic)</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">a</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">neg(a)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Negation (Logical)</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">not</span> <span class="pre">a</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">not_(a)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Positive</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">+</span> <span class="pre">a</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">pos(a)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Right Shift</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">>></span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">rshift(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Sequence Repetition</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">seq</span> <span class="pre">*</span> <span class="pre">i</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">repeat(seq,</span> <span class="pre">i)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Slice Assignment</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">seq[i:j]</span> <span class="pre">=</span> <span class="pre">values</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">setitem(seq,</span> <span class="pre">slice(i,</span> <span class="pre">j),</span> <span class="pre">values)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Slice Deletion</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">del</span> <span class="pre">seq[i:j]</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">delitem(seq,</span> <span class="pre">slice(i,</span> <span class="pre">j))</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Slicing</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">seq[i:j]</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">getitem(seq,</span> <span class="pre">slice(i,</span> <span class="pre">j))</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>String Formatting</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">s</span> <span class="pre">%</span> <span class="pre">obj</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">mod(s,</span> <span class="pre">obj)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Subtraction</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">-</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">sub(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Truth Test</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">obj</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">truth(obj)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Ordering</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre"><</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">lt(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Ordering</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre"><=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">le(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Equality</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">==</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">eq(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Difference</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">!=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ne(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Ordering</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">>=</span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ge(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> <tr><td>Ordering</td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">a</span> <span class="pre">></span> <span class="pre">b</span></tt></td> <td><tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">gt(a,</span> <span class="pre">b)</span></tt></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sphinxsidebar"> <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper"> <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table Of Contents</a></h3> <ul> <li><a class="reference external" href="#">9.9. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">operator</span></tt> — Standard operators as functions</a><ul> <li><a class="reference external" href="#mapping-operators-to-functions">9.9.1. Mapping Operators to Functions</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4>Previous topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="functools.html" title="previous chapter">9.8. <tt class="docutils literal docutils literal docutils literal"><span class="pre">functools</span></tt> — Higher order functions and operations on callable objects</a></p> <h4>Next topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="filesys.html" title="next chapter">10. File and Directory Access</a></p> <h3>This Page</h3> <ul class="this-page-menu"> <li><a href="../bugs.html">Report a Bug</a></li> <li><a href="../_sources/library/operator.txt" rel="nofollow">Show Source</a></li> </ul> <div id="searchbox" style="display: none"> <h3>Quick search</h3> <form class="search" action="../search.html" method="get"> <input type="text" name="q" size="18" /> <input type="submit" value="Go" /> <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" /> <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" /> </form> <p class="searchtip" style="font-size: 90%"> Enter search terms or a module, class or function name. </p> </div> <script type="text/javascript">$('#searchbox').show(0);</script> </div> </div> <div class="clearer"></div> </div> <div class="related"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" >index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../modindex.html" title="Global Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="filesys.html" title="10. 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